When in 1992 I moved abruptly from writing poetry about the meaning of life in college to writing prose about the practice of employee communication in Chicago, Hugh Iglarsh eased the transition. He was the editor of The Ragan Report and my boss, and he didn't think having intellectual aspirations and working in the employee communication trade press were mutually exclusive. So he and I explored this business pretty earnestly together for a year, and we've remained friends since. So last week I was tickled to alert Hugh to this series I'm doing on this old book I discovered. Here was his response, delivered to me with astonishing speed, and putting Alexander Heron's book into an important historical perspective that my analysis ignores. Thanks, Hugh. โDM
Very interesting both in its assumptions (e.g., that employersโand by extension, capitalism itselfโare fighting for the allegiance of their workforce against strong opponents) and its limitations (I haven't seen a mention of the concept of "upward communication," i.e., communication). It has a distinct New Deal sound to itโthat the basic institutions are at risk, and can only be salvaged if the working class gets a bigger slice of the pieโin terms not only of wealth, but also information and the implications of information, participation and dignity. Now that we are coming out of an age of neoliberal triumph, in which supposedly there was "No Alternative" to the rigors of globalization, Heron does indeed seem relevant again. The collapse of the economy shows that a system that revolves around paper wealth and ignores basic human needs can't sustain itself.
The book reflects a historical moment. To defeat fascism, the USA had to produce 100,000 airplanes a year. The workers' productivity was as important as the soldiers' courage. Yet the intense labor struggles and radical consciousness of the Depression years were still very much in workers' minds. The result was a liberal industrial policy, in which classical capitalism, with its naked exploitation and resultant class conflict, would be transformed by broad-minded intellectuals (such as Heron) into a kind of social or high-road capitalism, where workers were (at least rhetorically) conceptualized not as pure costs but as sentient human beings. The bosses were grudgingly willing to accept this arrangementโtemporarily โbecause the alternative was losing the war and hence the whole American empire.
The New Deal vision is a better arrangement for everybodyโbut the forces of bean-counting abstraction have proved stronger than the counter-forces. Ultimately, the strategy became de-industrialization, creating a society in which people either shuffle money, move information or paint nails. All to maximize short-term profits within hollowed-out, downward-spiraling corporations and to pre-empt working-class power, by turning producers into credit-hobbled consumers. But it doesn't create real wealthโin fact it drains wealth out of productive enterprises into usuryโand we see the long-term consequences.
I certainly hope that the crash of 2008 leads to a deep rethinking of what an economy is and what human beings are for. However, both the industrial plant and the local economies are weaker now than they were in 1943, and the New Deal solution of economic stimulus and revamped industrial relations is unlikely to produce the same results. One response to an economic-political crisis of this sort is fascism, the tendency of the Bush/Cheney administration. The other is a movement toward humane socialismโi.e., a broadening of the commons, a strengthening of the social fabric and a rejection of greed as the dominant impulse in life.
Anyway, what interests me about this bookโeven more than the employee relations angleโis Heron's take on the media. His categories of "reluctant" willingness (comparable to what the CIA calls "limited hangout"), "paternalistic" willingness and "propagandist" willingness perfectly describe the attitudes and purposes of the MSM. Heron's essay opened my eyes to the reality of the corporate media as a kind of house organ — one less enlightened than the communication vehicles advocated by Heron.
As for Heron's central creed:
"The aggressive willingness to share information with employees is practical because, honestly and wisely followed through, it will induce a constructive co-operation which cannot be bought or forced."
Well, that's saying a lot. What's even more important is an aggressive willingness to listen to employees. Workers will feel like partners when they have real input, when their safety is considered, when they feel secure and respected, when their bosses aren't making more in a day than they are in a year, when the company is concerned with quality and not just profits, when the tone of the enterprise is communal and not sociopathic, etc. Certainly communication is a good start in treating employees like people. But when you begin a conversation you don't know where it will goโthat's the whole pointโand I wish Heron would focus not just on divulging information but on obtaining it. By writing only from the point of view of the bosses (as far as I can tell, from what I've read here), he reveals his own standpoint of enlightened elitism.
Anyway, thanks for posting these excerptsโthey're useful advice for those in the trade, as well as wonderful historical documents. I look forward to seeing more of Heron's wisdom and your commentary.
Incredibly insightful analysis of Heron, in light of this particular speech of his: http://www.ndu.edu/library/ic2/L54-024.pdf where he speaks of consumerism. Hard to make a specific connection until you read further.
This is fascinating. David, thanks for showcasing Hugh’s superb commentary, which puts Heron’s world view in a whole new light. And thanks also to Yossi for digging up another little piece of Heron history. Reading his speech, with its typewritten text, brings one back to that era. I could smell the Mennen Skin Bracer and see the neatly trimmed sideburns on these men and hear the gravel in their voices.
But down to the content. There’s truth in Hugh’s observation that, for all his humanist rhetoric, Heron is very much a product of his age, which was built on an extremely paternalistic, hierarchical model in which management decided what was good for employees. But perhaps it wasn’t as one-sided as it seems. Although there may not have been a lot of two-way conversations between workers and their bosses on the shop floor, the extremely strong industrial unions of that time would have probably been in constant conversation with management. And in situations where there was decent leadership on both sides, workers’ grievances — and maybe even some of their ideas — would have been heard and constructive dialogue would have taken place.
Today the opportunity is to have conversations with individuals and even whole communities without having to have intermediaries.
“It seems to me–this is sheer speculation–that many of our most important relationships have not completely evolved yet from the tradition in which they started. …
“The relationship between employer and employee, if we trace it back far enough, was the relationship bet~Teen the master and the slave. The master supported the slave; the slave was there for the master. The fact of the matter is that gradually the slave passed out of the picture and employment took his place. … I do know this for sure: There is inherent in the relationship between employers and employees something that must have derived from that tradition of centuries past when the relationship was one of
conflict, one of exploitation, one of conquest, one in which the worker was subordinate not only to the will but to the needs of the master. …
“We are pretty well off in our company, in our industry, but if you were to ask all the employees in the pulp and paper industry in the United States what they think about employers, they would say, ‘They’re so and so,s.’ If you ask them, ‘What has your employer done that makes you think that?’ they will say, ‘Not our employer, but big
business; they’re bad people.’
“There is a sense of conflict that exists, at least abstractly, between those who work for wages and salaries and those who hire them
and pay their salaries. The job of understanding that will make our
economic machine operate successfully, continuously, and smoothly is the job of getting past that inherited sense of conflict, that inherited sense of being the modern counterpart of the ancient slave, and perhaps the even more prevalent carry-over from the ancient tradition of’being the modern counterpart of the ancient slave owner.”
Yossi, it’s taken me until now to read this, and appreciate it–and to thank you for digging it up.
David
Hi David, I just found this thread today, several months after your posts. I’m not sure if you found out much about him, but Crown Zellerbach was the company with which he’s probably best associated. My mom (92 years old now) was his Executive Secretary.
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Administracja powinno sie az do nauk ekonomicznych. Od momentu poczatku XX wieku, od chwili kierowanie prรณbowano podeprzec na naukowych podstawach, az az do lat 60. XX wieku zarzadzanie pojmowane bylo w charakterze przedsiewziecie kierownicze, obejmujace nastepujace sekwencje postepowania: Programowanie, Organizowanie, Decydowanie, Motywowanie tudziez Kontrolowanie, nazywane klasycznymi funkcjami zarzadzania. Klasyczne funkcje zarzadzania wyrรณznil zwierzchni “klasyk” zarzadzania Henri Fayol. Acz paradygmat zarzadzania zmienil sie od chwili tego czasu radykalnie, przeto powinno sie ponowic sie do starszej, z wiekszym natezeniem ogรณlnej definicji: zarzadzanie owo zdolnosc ewentualnie rutyna rozumnego stosowania srodkรณw w celu osiagniecia wyznaczonych celรณw.
(Zob. tez: Zarzadzanie, Koordynowanie)
Inne definicje zarzadzania:
Zarzadzanie jest sztuka osiagania zamierzonych rezultatรณw za sprawa innych ludzi, zarzadzajacy (menedzerowie) osiagaja cele organizacji na skros organizowanie pracy innych, natomiast nie za posrednictwem praktykowanie zadan osobiscie.
Zarzadzanie to dzialanie kierownicza polegajaca na ustalaniu celรณw a powodowaniu ich realizacji w organizacjach podleglych zarzadzajacemu, na podstawie wlasnosci srodkรณw produkcji czy tez dyspozycji nimi (wg Gilinskiego).
Zarzadzanie owo impreza polegajace na dysponowaniu zasobami (wg prof. T. Pszczolowskiego).
Zarzadzanie owo zestaw dzialan (planowanie, organizowanie, motywowanie, kontrola) skierowanych na zasoby organizacji (ludzkie, finansowe, rzeczowe, informacyjne) wykorzystywanych z zamiarem osiagniecia celรณw organizacji. (wg Griffina).
Zarzadzanie owo porzadkowanie chaosu (wg prof. B.R. Kuca)
W odniesieniu do organizacji gospodarczych w miejsce slowa kierowanie uzywa sie od czasu do czasu terminu kierowanie biznesu (ang. Business Administration). Funkcja administracji biznesu ujmuje krรณtkie okreslenie: “Administracja biznesu ma zapewnic, tak aby zostalo zrobione owo, co ma stanowic zrobione”. Kierowanie biznesu jest dyscyplina akademicka, zas cykl uniwersytetรณw a szkรณl biznesu nadaje ranga magistra sposrรณd tej dyscypliny (Master of Business Administration, w skrรณcie MBA).
Spis tresci
1 Sprawa zarzadzania
2 Przedmiot zarzadzania w organizacjach
3 Administracja operacyjne – administracja czynnikami konkurencyjnosci
4 Inne podmioty zarzadzania
5 Teoretycy zarzadzania
6 Zobacz tez
7 Linki zewnetrzne
Przedmiot zarzadzania
Podmiot zarzadzajacy nie furt jest tym, jaki wyznacza cele. Przykladem takiej sytuacji byc moze znajdowac sie zrzeszenie wojskowa, ktรณra ma do spelnienia okreslona misje, ale ani plec slaba sama, ani jej dowรณdcy (podmioty zarzadzajace) nie formuluja tej misji. Formuluja jednakze zadania (co jest az do zrobienia) i okreslaja wartosci docelowe (ang. targets), inaczej wyniki, jakie powinno sie dostac. Przyklad ten pokazuje, ze organizacja jest srodkiem osiagania celรณw, a wskutek tego jest przedmiotem zarzadzania. Inne typowe przedmioty zarzadzania majace tozsamosc owo domostwo, kapela ludzi, jednostka. Zwykle wypelniaja one klasyczne funkcje zarzadzania, dlatego – nie liczac wyjatki – powiemy, ze zagadnienie zarzadzania majacy tozsamosc jest na pelnia podmiotem zarzadzania.
Z wyjatkiem szczegรณlnych przypadkรณw, gdy np. administracja osobistym budzetem przy uzyciu pojedyncza osobe badz dyrygowanie gospodarstwa w pelni samowystarczalnego, osiaganie zamierzonych wynikรณw zalezy w czesci odkad dzialania innych podmiotรณw. Z tej przyczyny administracja obejmuje plus stosunki (zwiazki) podmiotu sposrรณd otoczeniem.
Kazdy osoba w swym dzialaniu wykorzystuje zasoby. Zasoby sa przedmiotem zarzadzania. Az do najwazniejszych naleza zasoby ludzkie (sila robocza zas jej kwalifikacje), zasoby finansowe, aktywa materialne (srodki trwale) i Chronos. Ostatnimi czasy co chwila wiekszego znaczenia w dzialaniu organizacji nabieraja zasoby srodowiska naturalnego oraz zasoby niematerialne (np. licencje, prawa autorskie), oczytanie natomiast uklady z otoczeniem spoleczno-gospodarczym zaliczane do zasobรณw kapitalu niematerialnego (ang. intangibles, intangible capital). Wiec w zarzadzaniu zasobami wyrรณzniamy najczesciej:
zarzadzanie zasobami ludzkimi,
zarzadzanie finansowe,
zarzadzanie aktywami,
zarzadzanie czasem,
zarzadzanie srodowiskiem,
zarzadzanie wiedza,
Administracja Warszawa
zarzadzanie kultura
zarzadzanie relacjami, glรณwnie istotne swiezo kierowanie zwiazkami sposrรณd klientem,
zarzadzanie kapitalem niematerialnym,
zarzadzanie problemami,
zarzadzanie konfliktami,
zarzadzanie stresem,
zarzadzanie jakoscia,
zarzadzanie ryzykiem,
zarzadzanie emocjami,
zarzadzanie nieruchomosciami,
zarzadzanie wartoscia firmy – Value Based Management.
Przedmiot zarzadzania w organizacjach
Przeznaczeniem organizacji jest systematyzowanie (porzadkowanie) dzialania jej uczestnikรณw w taki badania, tak aby realizowala swa misje, osiagala pozadane wyniki lub wykonywala swe zadania w poblizu optymalnym wykorzystaniu (zuzyciu) zasobรณw.
Przedmiotem zarzadzania ogรณlnego (ang. General Management) jest organizacja w charakterze calosc. Az do zadan zarzadzania ogรณlnego powinno sie kierowanie strategiczne, budowanie struktur organizacyjnych zas zarzadzanie zasobami ludzkimi natomiast aktywami. Nie zwazajac na tego w nowym paradygmacie zarzadzania kladzie sie obszerny emfaza na przywรณdztwo zas ksztaltowanie kultury korporacyjnej.
Przedmiotem zarzadzania funkcjonalnego sa zadania badz autonomicznych czesci organizacji, ktรณre nazywamy funkcjami. Wedle jednej sposrรณd definicji (H. James Harrington) stolek w organizacji owo grupa ludzi wykonujacych owo samo misja. Najwazniejsza dziedzina zarzadzania funkcjonalnego jest administracja operacjami, utozsamiane kiedys sposrรณd zarzadzaniem produkcja, natomiast dzis nagminnie okreslane ogรณlniej jako zarzadzanie wytwarzaniem wyrobรณw oraz uslug. Dzisiaj wzgledne prestiz zarzadzania funkcjonalnego zmniejsza sie, dlatego ze w co chwila wiekszym stopniu uzupelniane jest ono a po czesci zastepowane zarzadzaniem procesowym.
Przechodzenie z zarzadzania funkcjonalnego na zarzadzanie procesowe jest zjawiskiem charakterystycznym w celu wspomnianej zmiany paradygmatu zarzadzania. W tym nowym paradygmacie kierowanie operacjami jest dozwolone dotyczyc jak zarzadzanie czynnikami konkurencyjnosci.
Zarzadzanie operacyjne – administracja czynnikami konkurencyjnosci
Wyrรณznia sie trzy klasyczne czynniki konkurencyjnosci: forma, wartosc a roznoszenie. Zapewnienie wymaganej przy uzyciu gielda jakosci produktu (wyrobu wzglednie uslugi czy tez pakietu produkty+uslugi), kosztu nabycia i uzytkowania produktu zas wymaganej ilosci, rรณznorodnosci, terminowosci dostaw produktu natomiast szybkosci realizacji zamรณwien decyduje o konkurencyjnosci produktu, czyli o jego atrakcyjnosci rynkowej w porรณwnaniu sposrรณd innymi produktami. Pomijajac czynnikรณw klasycznych duzego znaczenia nabieraja w ostatnim czasie takie czynniki, podczas gdy bieglosc obslugi klientรณw (ang. Customer Service) i cechy jakosci wykraczajace nie mรณwiac o forma konstrukcji natomiast wykonania, np. ekologicznosc zas obronnosc produktu a procesu produkcji.
Zapewnienie jakosci na podejscie sztampowy jest zadaniem kontroli jakosci. Dogladanie jakosci jest funkcja organizacyjna. Kontrola jakosci wykonuje swoje misja w รณw tryb, iz sposrรณd wytworzonych produktรณw wybiera produkty spelniajace wymagania tudziez kwalifikuje je w charakterze nadajace sie az do przekazania klientowi zewnetrznemu albo wewnetrznemu. Produkty nie spelniajace wymagan zostaja odrzucone z wykorzystaniem kontrole jakosci natomiast kierowane do poprawek, az do naprawy albo do zlomowania.
Zapewnienie jakosci na podejscie dzisiejszy (w nowym paradygmacie zarzadzania) polega na zapewnieniu doskonalosci procesu wytwarzania i dostarczania. Podstawa takiego postepowania jest asercja, iz jezeli praca na kazdym etapie procesu jest wysokiej jakosci, owo na wyjsciu procesu powstaje produkt wysokiej jakosci. W praktyce parametry charakteryzujace stan produktu musza miescic sie w okreslonych oraz waskich granicach. O ile wlasciwie jest, mรณwi sie, ze tok jest stabilny. Gdy tymczasem zostanie stwierdzone, iz blizej nie okreslony sposrรณd parametrรณw jakosci produktu nie miesci sie w zadanych granicach, wypada poszukac w procesie miejsc, ktรณre sa przyczyna defektu, natomiast od tego czasu odwolac owe przyczyny. W รณw metoda realizowane jest sprzezenie zwrotne pomiedzy wyjsciem procesu, zas miejscami w procesie decydujacymi o jego doskonalosci.
Opisany modus sterowania procesem jest istota Kompleksowego Systemu Sterowania dzieki Jakosc – (ang. TQC – Total Quality Control). W praktyce olbrzymia wiekszosc procesรณw to procesy nieciagle. W takich procesach takze przetwarzanie, kiedy tudziez forma produktu na wyjsciu maja nature statystyczna. W odniesieniu az do takich przypadkรณw zas w odniesieniu az do procesรณw biznesowych mรณwimy o statystycznym sterowaniu procesami (ang. SPC – Statistical Process Control).
Zarzadzanie kosztami na podejscie schematyczny ma na celu redukcje kosztรณw dzialania organizacji. Para najpowszechniejsze srodki prowadzace do tego owo kontroling kosztรณw polegajacy na narzuceniu dyscypliny budzetowej (patrz: budzet, budzetowanie) wszystkim komรณrkom organizacyjnym oraz czynienie oszczednosci.
W zarzadzaniu procesowym w zastepstwie o redukcji kosztรณw mรณwi sie o redukcji strat. Podstawa programu redukcji strat jest podzial strat. W odniesieniu do niektรณrych procesรณw tudziez funkcji, takich podczas gdy proces produkcji, azaliz utrzymanie ruchu, punktem wyjscia do klasyfikacji strat jest segmentacja standardowa (np. siรณdemka rodzajรณw strat produkcyjnych, tzw. Szรณstka Wielkich Strat w pierwszym standardzie Total Productive Maintenance, szesnascie glรณwnych strat w drugim standardzie tego systemu). W praktyce najpowszechniejszym przedsiewzieciem majacym na celu redukcje strat jest eliminowanie sposrรณd procesu wszystkich elementรณw, ktรณre nie przynosza wartosci dodanej, sa marnotrawstwem (patrz Muda). Przedsiewzieciem kompleksowym jest wyszczuplanie procesรณw (ang. streamlining). Na ogรณl nie ogranicza sie ono az do eliminowania elementรณw zbednych, wszelako wymaga przeprojektowania procesu. Podstawowa metodologia wyszczuplania procesรณw, w podobny sposรณb produkcyjnych kiedy tudziez biznesowych, jest inzynieria przemyslowa – metodologia wspierajaca zarzadzanie operacyjne, traktowana czestokroc jak samodzielna zakres zarzadzania.
Najprostszy sprawa konkurowania w oparciu o koszty owo konkurencja cenowa. Na niektรณrych rynkach, zwlaszcza rynkach profesjonalnych, wysoka cena produktu jest akceptowana pod spodem warunkiem niskich kosztรณw eksploatacji produktu zas niskich kosztรณw wylaczenia produktu z eksploatacji. W takich przypadkach artykul konkursowy kosztowo owo produkt o niskim koszcie cyklu zycia.
Dostawa jako element konkurencyjnosci jest godnie wiazka kilku rรณznych czynnikรณw, ktรณre – zaleznie odkad stosunki (gl. od obszaru produktowo-rynkowego natomiast sytuacji konkurencyjnej) – maja wieksze albo mniejsze autorytet. Do najwazniejszych sposrรณd nich wypada niezawodnosc dostaw, czyli napelniacz za sprawa dostawce obietnic dotyczacych terminu dostawy. Obecnie rosnie donioslosc szybkosci dostaw, czyli czasu, kto uplywa od momentu momentu otrzymania zamรณwienia przez dostawce az do momentu dostarczenia towaru na lokalizacja przeznaczenia. Czynnikiem podstawowym jest poreka wymaganej ilosci towaru, mimo to w ramach tego rosnie wplyw rรณznorodnosci produktรณw. Targ wymaga skoro raz po raz z wiekszym natezeniem rรณznorodnych produktรณw dostarczanych coraz czesciej tudziez w coraz mniejszych partiach. Spelnienie tego warunku wymaga elastycznosci systemu produkcyjnego, ktรณra jest tym wieksza, im krรณtszy Chronos natomiast pomniejszy cena przestawiania (przezbrajania – patrz SMED).
Jak wspomniano powyzej, forma, koszt oraz dostawa nie sa jedynymi czynnikami konkurencyjnosci. Poreka pozostalych waznych w tej chwili czynnikรณw konkurencyjnosci odbywa sie w poprzek administracja srodowiskiem i administracja bezpieczenstwem.
Wyszczuplanie procesu na ogรณl prowadzi jednoczesnie az do jego przyspieszenia.
Prawidlowo prowadzone przeprojektowanie procesu pozwala dostac rรณwnolegle redukcje kosztรณw tudziez poprawe jakosci produktu. Przeprojektowanie radykalne procesรณw biznesowych to reengineering, kto stosowany jest w tej chwili niezmiernie z rzadka, jako ze radykalizm jego metodologii przynosi w warunkach przemyslowych na komplet wiecej efektรณw negatywnych, niz pozytywnych. Az do mniej radykalnych metodologii doskonalenia procesรณw naleza Business Process Redesigning zas Ulepszanie Procesรณw Biznesowych (ang. Business Process Improvement).
Inne podmioty zarzadzania
Gospodarka przyswajajaca (zbieractwo, myslistwo, lowienie ryb, pierwotne rolnictwo) wykorzystuje ograniczone zasoby naturalne, w zwiazku z tym jej celem jest nie lecz akwizycja oraz wykorzystanie tych zasobรณw, jednakze dodatkowo ich oslona. Wystepuja po tej stronie ale wrecz niektรณre, niezbedne elementy zarzadzania, podczas gdy rozlam pracy, programowanie robรณt gospodarskich a koordynowanie ich oraz proste czynnosci administracyjne, podczas gdy rejestracja inwentarza.
W gospodarce pierwotnej (samowystarczalnej) rรณwnie gdy w gospodarce przyswajajacej tudziez w wielu formach gospodarki kolektywnej (np. zagospodarowanie dzialรณw wodnych, system ekonomiczny lesna) utwรณr na suma nie ma ustalonej ceny, ergo nie musi przebiegac po tej stronie w ogรณle zarzadzanie finansowe. Nie wystepuje po tej stronie kierowanie strategiczne, natomiast administracja operacyjne ogranicza sie az do organizacji pracy.
W gospodarstwach rolnych a w najprostszych formach dzialalnosci gospodarczej, podczas gdy blahy wymiana handlowa, uslugi i praca (rzemioslo) wystepuja elementy strategii a zarzadzania zasobami (poniewaz wystepuje substytucja pracy, kapitalu natomiast energii), administracja jakoscia zas zrzeszenie pracy. Kategoria wynikowa jest tedy profit badz zarobek, wystepuje tedy kierowanie zakupami, niemniej jednak nie wystepuje kierowanie kosztami.
W gospodarstwach domowych podstawowym zagadnieniem zarzadzania jest zarezerwowanie dochodu oraz dysponowanych zasobรณw pracy oraz czasu posrodku konsumpcje biezaca (w tym wolne, laba zas rozrywka), oszczednosci i inwestycje w czas przyszly (np. edukacje).
Szczegรณlna dziedzina zarzadzania jest zarzadzanie osobiste, ktรณrego podmiotem jest jednostka, natomiast przedmiotem na wszystko jej budzet czasu. Kierowanie niekiedy wewnatrz artykul wyjscia bierze uswiadomienie sobie za posrednictwem jednostke hierarchii wartosci dotyczacej tego, co jest gwoli niej wazne w jej zyciu. Celem jest racjonalne gospodarowanie nieraz, tzn. alokowanie go wg priorytetรณw wynikajacych z owej refleksji. Bieglosc zarzadzania czasem bywa i istotnym atutem pracownika w organizacji.
Inna szczegรณlna dziedzina zarzadzania sa sytuacje szczegรณlne; wyrรณznia sie na przyklad kierowanie katastrofami, kierowanie konfliktami, administracja kryzysowe.
Historycznie najwczesniejsza, w pelni dojrzala dziedzina zarzadzania jest zarzadzanie terytorialna natomiast panstwowa. Najwczesniej uksztaltowala sie kierowanie zamiast (prawdopodobnie w 2 polowie VI tysiaclecia p.n.e.), bowiem miasta powstaly przedtem powstaly panstwa.
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ะะฝะฐ ะฝะต ะฟัะพััะพ ะฟัะธะฝะธะผะฐะปะฐ ะณะพััััั ะฒะฐะฝะฝั ะฐ ะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ััะพ ัะฐะบ ะบะฐะบ ะฑัะดัะพ ะตะต ัะตะปะพ ะฝะต ะทะฝะฐะปะพ ะปะฐัะบ ัะถะต ะพัะตะฝั ะดะฐะฒะฝะพ. ะะตะฒััะบะฐ ะปะฐัะบะพะฒะพ ะฝะตะถะธะปะฐ ัะตะปััะต ะผะพัะฐะปะบะพะน ะธ ัััะพะฝะบะฐะผะธ. ะััะฐัะธ ัะตะดะบะพ ัะฐะบะพะต ะฒะธะดะตะพ ะฝะฐะนะดะตัั ั ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝะพะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ ัะพะปัััะต ะะพัะปะต ััะพะผะธัะตะปัะฝะพะณะพ ัะฐะฑะพัะตะณะพ ะดะฝั, ะฝะฐัะฐะปัะฝะธะบ ะทะฐัะตะป ะบ ัะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะพะน ัะฐะฑะพัะฝะธัะต ะธ ะฝะฐะบะฐะทะฐะป ะตะต ะฟััะผะพ ะฝะฐ ััะพะปะต. ะฃ ะผะฐะดะฐะผ ััะพ ัะถะต ะฝะต ะฟะตัะฒัะน ะพะฟัั ะฟะพััะฐั ะฐัััั ะฝะฐ ััะพะปะต ะธ ะพะฝะฐ ะดะพะปะณะพ ะฝะต ัะพะฟัะพัะธะฒะปัะปะฐัั. ะััะฐะฝัะตะฒะฐะฒ ะฟะตัะตะด ะผะฐัะตััะผ ะผะฐัะพ ะฟะฐัะพัะบั ัะฐะฝัะตะฒ ััะถะตะฝัะบะฐั ะบัะฐัะฐะฒะธัะฐ ะฟัะธัััะฟะฐะตั ะบ ัะฐัััะตะณะธะฒะฐะฝะธั ะฟัะณะพะฒะธั ะฝะฐ ะตะณะพ ััะฑะฐัะบะต, ะฝั ะฐ ะดะฐะปะตะต ะฟะฐัะตะฝั ะฒะทัะป ะดะตะปะพ ะฒ ัะฒะพะธ ััะบะธ ะธ ัะดะตะปะฐะป ะผะธะปะฐัะบั. ะะพะปะฝะพัััั ัะฐััะธัะตะฝะฝัะต ััะตะฝะบะธ ะตะต ะฒะปะฐะณะฐะปะธัะฐ ะฑัะปะธ ะฟะพะปะฝะพัััั ัะฐััะปะฐะฑะปะตะฝั ะธ ะณะพัะพะฒั ะดะปั ัะพะณะพ ััะพ ะฑั ะฒ ะฝะธะท ะฒะพัะตะป ะดะปะธะฝะฝัะน ะธ ัะฟััะผัะน ัะปะตะฝ, ะฝะพ ะฝะตั ะฒ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะต ะดะตะฒะบั ััะฐั ะฝัะปะธ ะฒ ะทะฐะด ะธ ัะพะปัะบะพ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะดะฒะฐ ััะฒะพ ะะพะปะปะธ ะฟัะธะฒะปะตะบะฐัะตะปัะฝะฐั ะธ ะทะฐะผะตัะฐัะตะปัะฝะฐั ะดะตะฒะพัะบะฐ ะบะพัะพัะฐั ะปัะฑะธั ะผะฐััััะฑะธัะพะฒะฐัั ะธ ะบะพะณะดะฐ ััะพ ะดะตะนััะฒะธะต ัะฝะธะผะฐะตั ะฝะฐ ะฒะธะดะตะพะบะฐะผะตัั ะตะต ะดััะถะพัะตะบ, ะธ ะฒะพั ะฟะพะปััะธะปะฐัั ะฝะต ะฟะปะพั ะฐั ะฟะพะดะฑะพัะพัะบะฐ ะธั ะตะต ัะฐะผะพัะดะพะฒะปะตัะฒะพั ะฃัััะพะธะฒัะธัั ัะดะพะฑะฝะพ ะฝะฐ ะบัะพะฒะฐัะบะต ะฝะฐัะฐ ะะตะปะปะธ ะทะฐะฟััะบะฐะตั ัััะบั ะฒ ะผะพะบััะต ะพั ะฒะพะทะฑัะถะดะตะฝะธั ััััะธัะบะธ ะธ ะพัะตะฝั ั ะพัะพัะพ ะดะพะฒะพะดะธั ัะตะฑั ะดะพ ัะฐะผะพัะดะพะฒะปะตัะฒะพัะตะฝะธั ะผะฐัะตัะพะน ัััะพะฝะบะพะน ะธ ัะฐะปะพะฒะปะธะฒัะผะธ ะฟะฐะปััะธะบะฐะผะธ. ะะฐัะตะฝั ัะถะต ะฝะต ะฟะตัะฒัะน ัะฐะท ะฟัะพัะธั ัะฒะพั ะดะฐะปัะฝัั ะปัะฑะธะผัั ะฟะพะบะฐะทะฐัั ะตะผั ัะฒะพะต ะผะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบะพะต ะพัะบะพ ะธ ะพะฝะฐ ะตััะตััะฒะตะฝะฝะพ ะฑะตะท ะผะฐะปะตะนัะตะน ะพะฟะฐัะบะธ ัะฐะทะดะตะฒะฐะตััั ะธ ะฟะพะบะฐะทัะฒะฐะตั ะตะผั ะฒัะต ัะตะณะพ ะพะฝ ัะพะปัะบะพ ะฟะพะฟัะพัะธั, ะบัะพ ะถ ะะฒะต ะฑะปะพะฝะดะธะฝะบะธ ะปะตัะฑะธัะฝะบะธ ะทะฐัะตะปะธ ะฒ ััะพะปะพะฒะพะน ะฝะฐ ะฟะตัะตะผะต ะธ ะฟะพะบะฐ ะฝะต ะฟัะพะทะฒะตะฝะตะป ะทะฒะพะฝะพะบ ะพะดะฝะฐ ะธะท ัััะดะตะฝัะพะบ ััะตะปะฐัั ะฝะฐ ััะพะป ะธ ัะฐะทะดะฒะธะฝัะปะฐ ะฝะพะถะบะธ, ะตะต ะฟะพะดััะณะฐ ะฟัะธััะฐะปัะฝะพ ะฝะฐะฑะปัะดะฐะปะฐ ะบะฐะบ ัะฐ ะผะฐััััะฑะธััะตั ะบะปะธัะพ
ะะต ัะพะปัะบะพ ะฟัะพััะธัััะบะธ ะตััั ะฒ ะฝะฐัะตะผ ะฒะตัะตะปะพะผ ะผะธัะต ะฝะพ ะธ ะดะพะฑะปะตััะฝัะต ะฟัะพััะธัััั ัะพะถะต ะธะผะตัััั. ะะพั ะพะดะฝะพะณะพ ะธะท ะฝะธั ััะฐ ัะธะผะฟะฐัะธัะฝะฐั ะผะฐะผะฐัะฐ ัะฝัะปะฐ ะทะฐ ะพัะตะฝั ะบััะฟะฝัั ััะผะผั, ะบะฐะบ ะพะฝ ะธัะฟะพะปะฝะธะป ัะฒะพั ัะฐะฑะพัั ัั ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝัะต ะดะปะธะฝะฝัะต ะณะตะน ัะพะปะธะบะธ ะะฐัะฐะฝ ะฟัะธะฒะตะป ะบ ัะตะฑะต ะดะพะผะพะน ัะฒะพั ัะตะบััะฐะปัะฝัั ะฟะพะดััะถะบั, ััะพะฑั ะพัะพะดัะฐัั ะตะต, ะพะฝ ะฝะฐัะฐะป ะณะปะฐะดะธัั ะตะต ะบะธัะบั ะฟะพะฒะตัั ััััะธะบะพะฒ. ะะพัะพะผ ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ะฒะทัะปะฐ ะฟะตะฝะธั ะฟะฐัะตะฝัะบั ะฒ ัะพัะธะบ ะธ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะพััะฐััะฒะฐัั ะตะณะพ. ะ ะฟะพัะปะต ะะฐ ััะพ ัะพะปัะบะพ ะฝะต ะธะดัั ัะผะฐะทะปะธะฒัะต ัะตะบัะธ ัััะดะตะฝัะบะธ ัะฐะดะธ ะฟะพะปััะตะฝะธั ั ะพัะพัะตะน ะพัะตะฝะบะธ. ะะพั ะตัะต ะพะดะธะฝ ะฟัะธะผะตั ะบะฐะบ ัะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะฐั ัััะดะตะฝัะบะฐ ะะธะบะฐ ัะพัะตั ั ะฟัะฟะตะฟะพะดะฐะฒะฐัะตะปั ัะปะตะฝ, ะฐ ะทะฐัะตะผ ะฟะพะดััะฐะฒะปัะตั ัะฒะพั ะตะทะตะฝัะบ ะกะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะฐั ะฑััะฝะตัะบะฐ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะฟัะธััะฐะฒะฐัั ะบ ัะฒะพะตะผั ะฟะฐัะฝั, ััะพะฑั ะพะฝ ะบะฐะบ ัะปะตะดัะตั ะตะต ะพัััะฐั ะฐะป ะฒ ะฟะพะฟะบั, ะพะฝะฐ ะดะฐะถะต ัะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ะตะผั ะผะธะฝะตั ะบะฐะบ ะพะฝ ะธ ะปัะฑะธั, ะฝะพ ะฟัะตะถะดะต ัะตะผ ะฒัะตะฑะฐัั ะฟะพะดััะณั ะฒ ะทะฐะดะฝะธัั, ะพะฝ ะพัััะฐั ะัะถะธัะพะบ ะพัะดัั ะฐะฒัะธะน ะฒ ะขะฐะธะปะฐะฝะดะต ัะฝัะป ะพัะฐัะพะฒะฐัะตะปัะฝัั ะฟัะพััะธัััะพัะบั, ะพะฝ ะฒัะปะธะทะฐะป ะตะต ะผะพะบัะตะฝัะบัั ะบะธัะบั, ะทะฐัะตะผ ะพะฝะฐ ัะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ะตะผั ะฟะพััััะฐััะธะน ะผะธะฝะตั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะพะฝะธ ะดะพะปะณะพ ััะฐั ะฐะปะธัั ะะฑะฝะฐะถะตะฝะฝะฐั ะบัะฐัะพัะบะฐ ะปะตะถะฐะปะฐ ั ะฑะฐััะตะนะฝะฐ ะธ ะณะปะฐะดะธะปะฐ ัะฒะพั ะบะธัะบั, ะฟะพัะพะผ ััะพ ัะฒะธะดะตะปะธ ะดะฒะฐ ะฟะฐัะฝั ะธ ัะตัะธะปะธ ะฒะพัะฟะพะปัะทะพะฒะฐัััั ะผะพะผะตะฝัะพะผ, ะฟะพะบะฐ ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ะฒะพะทะฑัะถะดะตะฝะฝะฐั. ะัะฐัะพัะบะฐ ัะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ัะตะฑััะฐะผ ะผะธะฝะตั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบะฐั ัะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะฐั ะฑััะฝะตัะบะฐ ัะตัะธะปะฐ ะทะฐะฝััััั ัะตะบัะพะผ ัะพ ัะฒะพะธะผ ะฟะฐัะฝะตะผ ะฟัะธ ัะฒะธะดะตัะตะปัั . ะกะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ะฒะบะปััะธะปะฐ ัะฒะพั ะฒะตะฑ-ะบะฐะผะตัั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะพะฝะฐ ัะฐะทะดะตะปะฐัั, ะฒะทัะปะฐ ัะปะตะฝ ะฟะฐัะฐะฝะฐ ะฒ ัะพัะธะบ ะธ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะตะณ ะัะฐัะธะฒะฐั ะฑััะฝะตัะบะฐ ั ะฑะพะปััะธะผะธ ัะธััะบะฐะผะธ ัะฝัะปะฐ ะฝะพะผะตั ะฒ ะณะพััะธะฝะฝะธัะต ััะพ ะฑั ะบะฐะบ ัะปะตะดัะตั ะพัััะฐั ะฐััั. ะัะธะณะปะฐัะธะปะฐ ัะฒะพะตะณะพ ะปัะฑะพะฒะฝะธัะบะฐ ะธ ะฟะพะปะธะทะฐะฒ ะตะผั ะฑะพะปัััั ะตะปะดั ะฟัะธะฝัะปะฐัั ััะฐั ะฐััั ะฝะฐ ัะปะตะฝะต ัะธะดั ัะฒะตัั ั
ะะณัะพะผะฝะพะต ะบะพะปะธัะตััะฒะพ ะผัะถัะบะพะน ัะฐะดะพััะธ ะปะตัะธั ะฒ ัะพัะธะบะธ ะธ ะฝะฐ ะปะธัะธะบะฐ ะฝะตัะบะพะปัะบะธั ะดะตะฒััะตะบ ะดะตะฒัะพะฝะบะธ ะณะปะพัะฐัั ะตะต ะธ ะฒัะปะธะทัะฒะฐัั. ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝัะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ ัะพัะพ ะณะฐะปะตัะตะธ ะะฐ ัะฐะนัะต ะฟัะตะดััะฐะฒะปะตะฝะพ ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะฒะธะดะตะพ, ะฟะพัะฝะพ ัะพะปะธะบะธ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ, ะฝะฐัะปะฐะถะดะฐะนัะตัั ะฟัะตะบัะฐัะฝัะผะธ ะพัััะตะฝะธัะผะธ ะฟัะธ ะฟัะพัะผะพััะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ ะะฐัะฝะธัะบะฐ ะทะฐะฝะธะผะฐะตััั ัะตะบัะพะผ ั ะฟัะตะบัะฐัะฝะพะน ะณััะดะฐััะพะน ัะตะปะพัะบะพะน, ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ัะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะฒะทัะปะฐ ะฟะตะฝะธั ะฟะฐัะฝั ะฒ ัะพัะธะบ ะธ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ั ะฝะฐัะปะฐะถะดะตะฝะธะตะผ ะตะณะพ ะพััะฐััะฒะฐัั. ะ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะบัะฐัะพัะบะฐ ะฒััะฐะปะฐ ะฒ ะฟะพะทั ัะฐะบะพะผ, ะฐ ัะฐะผะตั ะฟั ะ ะฝะตะน ะฒ ะพัะธั ะฒะพัะตะป ัะฐะฑะพัะฝะธะบ ะธ ััะฐะป ะฟัะธััะฐะฒะฐัั ะบ ะบัะฐัะพัะบะต ั ัะฒะฝัะผ ะถะตะปะฐะฝะธะตะผ ัะตะบัะฐ ะฝะฐ ััะพ ะผะธะปะฐัะบะฐ ะทะฐัะปัะฑะฐะปะฐัั ะฝะพ ะฒะฟะพัะปะตะดััะฒะธะธ ะดะฐะปะฐ ะฝะฐัััะธะฒ ัะตะดะพะณะพ ะผัะถะธัะบะฐ ะฒัะตะผะธ ัะฒะพะธะผะธ ะฟัะตะปะตัััะผะธ. ะ ัะพ ะฒัะตะผั ะฟะพะบะฐ ะฟะฐัะตะฝะตะบ ะพั ะดััะธ ะฝะฐะดัะฐัะธะฒะฐะตั ะตะณะพ ัะดะธะฒะปะตะฝะฝะฐั ะดะตะฒะบะฐ ะฒ ัะพะบะต ัะผะพััะธั ะฝะฐ ะฟัะพะธัั ะพะดััะตะต. ะะพัััะธะต ัะฐะผะพัะบะธ ัะพะฑัะฐะปะธัั ะฒ ะฟะพะบัะฟะฐัััั ะฒ ัะฐัะฝั, ะฝะพ ะธะผ ะฟะพะผะตัะฐะปะฐ ะฟะพั ะพัั. ะกััะบะธ ัะตัะธะปะธ ัะฐะทะฒะตััััั ะปะฐัะบะฐะฝะธะต ะบะธัะพะบ ัะทััะบะพะผ ะธ ะฟะฐะปััะธะบะฐะผะธ. ะะฐัะตะฝั ะพัะพะดะฒะธะฝัะป ะปัะผะบั ััััะธะบะพะฒ ัะฒะพะน ะฟะพะดััะถะบะธ ะฒ ััะพัะพะฝั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะฝะฐัะฐะป ะปะฐัะบะฐัั ะตะต ะบะธัะบั, ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ัะพะถะต ัะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ัะฑะพะนะฝัะน ะผะธะฝะตั ะฟะฐัะตะฝัะบั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะฟะฐัะฐะฝ ะฝะฐัะฐะป ััะฐั ะฐัั ะบัะฐัะฐะฒะธัั, ัะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะฒ ะฟะธะทะดะตะฝะบ ะะตะฒะบะฐ ั ัะตัะฝัะผะธ ะฒะพะปะพัะฐะผะธ ะฝะฐะถะฐะปะฐ ะฝะฐ ะบะฝะพะฟะบั ะฒะบะปััะตะฝะธั ะทะฐะฟะฐัะธ ะบะฐะผะตัั ะฝะฐ ะบะพะผะฟะต ะธ ะทะฐัะฒะตัะธะฒ ะฒัะตะผะธ ัะฒะพะธะผะธ ะฟัะตะปะตัััะผะธ ัะฐะปะฐ ัะฑะปะฐะถะฐัััั ะฒะพะธ ะดััะบะธ ะธ ะธะทัะตะดะบะฐ ะฟะพัะฐััะฒะฐัั ะผะฐััััะฑ.
ะะพัะฝะพ ัะพะปะธะบะธ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ, ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝะพ, ัะผะพััะตัั ั ั ั , ัะบะฐัะฐัั ัะพะปัะบะพ ะปัััะตะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ, ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ ะกััะฐะฝะธัะฐ 6 ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝะพะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ ัะตะปะตัะพะฝ ะะฐัะตะฝะตะบ ะดะฐะฒะฝะตะฝัะบะพ ัั ะฐะถะธะฒะฐะตั ะทะฐ ะดะฐะผะพะน ะฝะฐ ะผะฝะพะณะพ ััะฐััะต ะตะณะพ, ะฝะต ะฟัะพััะพ ััะฐััะต ะฐ ะพะฝะฐ ะตะผั ะฒ ะผะฐัะตัะธ ะณะพะดะธััั. ะะพ ะธ ััะพ ะฝะต ะฟะพะผะตัะฐะปะพ ะตะผั ััััะพะธัั ัััะฟัะธะท ะดะปั ะปัะฑะธะผะพะน ะธ ะฟัะธะฒะตะทัะธ ะตะต ะฒ ัะบัะบะปัะทะธะฒะฝัั ะณะพัั ะ ัะฐะผะพะน ะฝะต ะพะฑัะบะฝะพะฒะตะฝะฝะพะน ะฟะพะทะต ะฐ ัะพัะฝะตะต ะฟะพะทะฐั ััะฐ ะฟะฐัะพัะบะฐ ะปัะฑะธั ะพัััะณะธะฒะฐัััั, ะฝะฐ ััะพ ะธ ะะฐะผ ัะพะฒะตััะตะผ ะณะปัะฝััั. ะะฐัะตะฝั ะตะฒัะพะฟะตะนัะบะพะณะพ ะฟัะพะธัั ะพะถะดะตะฝะธั ะฟัะธะฒะตะป ะฒ ะดะพะผ ัะฒะพั ะฝะพะฒะตะฝัะบัั ะฟะพะดััะถะบั ะธ ะฟะพัะปะต ัะพะณะพ ะบะฐะบ ะฝะฐะธะณัะฐะปัั ะฟะฐะปััะฐะผะธ ั ะตะต ะฒะฐะณะธะฝะพะน ะพะฝ ะฟัะพะฝะธะบ ะฒ ะบะธัะบั ะธ ะดะพััะฐะฒะธะป ะฟัะธััะฝะพััะธ ัะตะบัะฐ. ะะฐัะตะฝั ะทะฐะฝะธะผะฐะตััั ะปัะฑะพะฒัั ั ัะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะพะน ะฑััะฝะตัะบะพะน ั ะพะณัะพะผะฝัะผะธ ัะธััะบะฐะผะธ, ะพะฝะฐ ะดะตะปะฐะตั ะตะผั ะฟะพััััะฐััะธะน ะผะธะฝะตั, ะฟะพัะพะผ ัะฐะดะธััั ะตะผั ะฝะฐ ัะปะตะฝ ะธ ะฝะฐัะธะฝะฐะตั ะฝะฐ ะฝะตะผ ะฟััะณะฐัั, ะฟะพัะปะต ะดะปะธัะตะปัะฝะพะณะพ ะฟะธะทะดะฐัะพะณะพ ัะตะบ ะขะฐะบ ะบะฐะบ ั ะดัะดะตะฝัะบะธ ัะถะต ะฝะต ััะพะธั ะตะผั ะฟัะธัะปะพัั ัะฑะปะฐะถะฐัั ะผะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบัั ะดะตะฒะบั ะฟัะธ ะฟะพะผะพัะธ ะฟะพััะฐ ั ะฟะปะฐััะผะฐััะพะฒัะผ ะฟะธััะฝะพะผ. ะะต ะบะธัะบะฐ ะฒะตััะผะฐ ะฝะฐะผะพะบะปะฐ ะธ ะพัะตะฝั ะทะฐั ะพัะตะปะฐ ะปะฐัะบ ะธ ะฒั ะพะถะดะตะฝะธั ะฒ ะฒะฝัััั ะตะต, ะฝะฐ ััะพ ะดะตะฒััะบะฐ ะพัะฒะตัะธะปะฐ ะปะฐัะบะพะฒัะผะธ ัััะฐัััะผะธ ะฟะฐะปััะตะฒ. ะะพัะปะต ัะพะณะพ ะบะฐะบ ะฟะพ ะพัะตะฝั ะทะฐัะพััะตะผั ะปะพะฑะบั ััะฐัะพะน ะผะธะปะฐัะบะธ ะฟัะพัะปะฐัั ะพัััะฐั ะฑัะธัะฒะฐ, ะพะฝะฐ ะฒ ะผะพะผะตะฝั ะฟะพะฝะตัะปะฐ ะฟะพะบะฐะทะฐัั ะตะต ัะฒะพะตะผั ะฟะฐัะตะฝัะบั, ััะพ ะฑ ัะพั ะธ ะฟะพะปัะฑะพะฒะฐะปัั ะธ ะฟะพััะฐั ะฐะป.
ะะฑะฐััะตะปัะฝะฐั ะผะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบะฐั ะฑะปะพะฝะดะธะฝะบะฐ ะทะฐะฝะธะผะฐะตััั ะปัะฑะพะฒัั ั ะฟะฐัะฝะตะผ. ะกะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ัะตะปะพัะบะฐ ัะฐะทะดะตะปะฐัั, ะฐ ะทะฐัะตะผ ะพะฝะฐ ะฒะทัะปะฐ ะตะณะพ ะผะพะณััะธะน ะฟะตะฝะธั ะฒ ัะพัะธะบ ะธ ะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ั ะฝะฐัะปะฐะถะดะตะฝะธะตะผ ะตะณะพ ะพััะฐััะฒะฐัั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะฟะฐัะฝะธัะบะฐ ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝัะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ ัะพัะพ ััะฐััะต ะะต ัะพะปัะบะพ ะฟัะพััะธัััะบะธ ะตััั ะฒ ะฝะฐัะตะผ ะฒะตัะตะปะพะผ ะผะธัะต ะฝะพ ะธ ะดะพะฑะปะตััะฝัะต ะฟัะพััะธัััั ัะพะถะต ะธะผะตัััั. ะะพั ะพะดะฝะพะณะพ ะธะท ะฝะธั ััะฐ ัะธะผะฟะฐัะธัะฝะฐั ะผะฐะผะฐัะฐ ัะฝัะปะฐ ะทะฐ ะพัะตะฝั ะบััะฟะฝัั ััะผะผั, ะบะฐะบ ะพะฝ ะธัะฟะพะปะฝะธะป ัะฒะพั ัะฐะฑะพัั ัั ะะฐัะตะฝั ั ัะธะผะฟะฐัะธัะฝะพะน ะฑะปะพะฝะดะธะฝะบะพะน ัะตัะธะปะธ ะทะฐะฝััััั ัะตะบัะพะผ ะฝะฐ ัะฒะตะถะตะผ ะฒะพะทะดัั ะต, ะพะฝะธ ัะฐัััะตะปะธะปะธ ัะฟะฐะปัะฝะธะบ ะธ ัะฐะทะดะตะปะธัั. ะะตะฒััะบะฐ ัะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ัะดะตะปะฐะปะฐ ะฟะฐัะฝั ัะฑะพะนะฝัะน ะผะธะฝะตั, ะฐ ะฟะพัะพะผ ะพะฝ ั ะพัะพัะตะฝัะบะพ ะตะต ะพัััะฐั ะฐะป. ะ ะตะต ัััะพะฝะบะต ัะฐะธััั ะฝะต ะพะฑััะฝะฐั ัััะบะพะฒะธะฝะฐ ะฟัะธ ะฟะพะผะพัะธ ะบะพัะพัะพะน ะฝะฐัะฐ ะณะตัะพะธะฝั ะผะฐััะตัะพะฒะธัะพ ัะฐัะฟัะฐะฒะปัะตััั ั ัะฒะพะตะน ะฒะพะณะบะตะฝัะบะพะน ะบะธัะบะพะน. ะะฐะปะตะฝัะบัั ะฑะตะปะตะฝัะบัั ัะตะปะพัะบั ะฝะฐัะฐะดะธะปะธ ะฝะฐ ะฑะพะปััะพะน ัะตัะฝัะน ั ัะน. ะขะฐะบะพะณะพ ะถะตััะบะฐัะฐ ะฒั ะดะฐะฒะฝะพ ะฝะต ะฒะธะดะตะปะธ. ะะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบะฐั ะผะฐะผะพัะบะฐ ั ะบะพัะพัะบะพะน ัััะธะถะบะพะน ะฟัะธะพะฑัะตะปะฐ ัััะฐะฟะพะฝะพะฒัะน ัะปะตะฝ ะฒ ัะตะบั ัะพะฟะต ะธ ั ะฟะตัะฒัั ะผะธะฝัั ะฟะพะบัะฟะบะธ ั ะพัะตั ะดะพััะฐะฒะธัั ัะดะพะฒะพะปัััะฒะธะต ัะฒะพะตะต ะผะพะปะพะดะตะฝัะบะพะน ะดะพัััะบะต, ะบะพัะพัะฐั ััะฐะปะฐ ัะฐะบะพะผ ะธ ัะผะฐะทัะฒะฐะต ะะทะธะฐัะบะธ ะกััะฐะฝะธัะฐ 2 ะะพัะฝะพ ัะพะปะธะบะธ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ, ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะฑะตัะฟะปะฐัะฝะพ, ัะผะพััะตัั ั ั ั , ัะบะฐัะฐัั ัะพะปัะบะพ ะปัััะตะต ะฟะพัะฝะพ, ะฟะพัะฝะพ ะพะฝะปะฐะนะฝ ะกะตะบััะฐะปัะฝะฐั ัะฝะฐั ะฑััะฝะตัะบะฐ ััะฐั ะฐะตััั ั ะผัะถะธะบะพะผ. ะกะฝะฐัะฐะปะฐ ะบัะฐัะพัะบะฐ ะฒะทัะปะฐ ะผะพะณััะธะน ัะปะตะฝ ะฒ ัะพัะธะบ ะธ ะฟัะธะฝัะปะฐัั ั ะฝะฐัะปะฐะถะดะตะฝะธะตะผ ะตะณะพ ะพััะฐััะฒะฐัั. ะ ะฟะพัะปะต ัะฑะพะนะฝะพะณะพ ะผะธะฝะตัะฐ ะถะตัะตะฑะตั ะฝะฐะณะฝัะป ะดะตะฒะพัะบั ัะฐะบะพะผ ะธ ะพ
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